Study Sheet for quiz on December 8 th Coop A
H.S. 505
James Sylvester RN
Hillcrest High School
160-05 Highland Avenue
JAMAICA ESTATES, NY 11432
Phone: (718) 658-5407 Fax: (718) 739-5137
Periodic Table first discovered in 1869 by Dmitry I. Mendeleyev is a way of presenting all the elements so as to show their similarities and differences. The elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic number(Z) as you go from left to right accross the table. The horizontal rows a called periods and the vertical rows, groups.A noble gas is found at the right hand side of each period. There is a progression from metals to non-metals across each period. Elements found in groups (e.g. alkali, halogens) have a similar electronic configuration. The number of electrons in outer shell is the same as the number of the group (e.g. lithium 2·1).The block of elements between groups II and III are called transition metals. These are similar in many ways; they produce colored compounds, have variable valency and are often used as catalysts. Elements 58 to 71 are known as lanthanide or rare earth elements. These elements are found on earth in only very small amounts.Elements 90 to 103 are known as the actinide elements. They include most of the will known elements which are found in nuclear reactions. The elements with larger atomic numbers than 92 do not occur naturally. They have all been produced artificially by bombarding other elements with particles.
FAMILIES OF ELEMENTS With so many elements, it is impractical to being a study of each one individually. The elements here will first be classified generally as metals and nonmetals. Metals will be further divided into alkali and alkaline earth metals. Metalloids will be discussed as elements with intermediate properties or metals and nonmetals, with metals on the left side of the periodic table and metals on the right. Two special classes of elements with special properties discussed are noble gasses, which combine with almost no other elements, and rare-earth elements that are so similar to one another that they are extremely difficult to separate.
Alkali Metals are the elements in Group IA of the periodic table. The members of the family are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. All six elements have the properties of metals except they are softer and less dense. They can be cut with a knife. They are the most reactive metals. They are so reactive that they are never found in nature. They are always combined with other elements. The alkali metals have only one electron in their outermost shell, so alkali metals form positive ions.
Alkaline Earth Metals are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. These elements, which are harder and more dense than the alkali metals, also have higher melting points and boiling points. They are highly reactive, but not as active as the alkali metals. Like the alkali metals, the alkaline metals are never found free in nature. The alkaline earth metals have two electrons in their outermost energy level, so they also form positive ions.
Transition Metals have properties similiar to one another and to other metals, but their properties do not fit in with those of any other family. Most transition metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. Most have high melting points and are hard. Transition metals are much less active than the alkali and alkaline earth metals. Many transition metals combine chemically with oxygen to form compounds called oxides. Many transition metals have more than one oxidation number. Transition metals form compounds that are brightly colored.
From Metals to Non-Metals in groups IIIA to VIA of the periodic table elements have properties which change from metallic to nonmetallic. These groups include the boron family, carbon family, nitrogen family, and oxygen family.
Boron, the first element in the boron family is a metalloid. Aluminum, which is right beneath boron, is by its position a metalloid. But the properties of aluminum are usually those of metals. The other members of the boron family ...gallium, indium, and thallium, are metals. Boron, which is hard and brittle, is never found in nature in the free state. It is usually found combined with oxygen. The compound boric oxide is important in making heat-resistant glass. Boric acid is commonly used as eyewash and antiseptic. The compound borax is useful as a cleaning agent and water softener.
Aluminum is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant element in the earth's crust. Aluminum is found as aluminum oxide in the ore called bauxite. Aluminum is extremely valuable in industry. It is light, strong, and does not tarnish in air. It is a good conductor and is used in wiring, airplane parts, household items.
The Carbon family includes the elements carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead. Carbon can combine with other elements in a great variety of ways. Millions of carbon compounds called "organic compounds." Carbon is called the basis for life because all living things contain organic compounds.
Silicon is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust. Silicon is used in glass and incement. It is also used in solar cells. Solar cells convert the energy of sunlight into electric energy.
Germanium is a metalloid used in transistors. Transistors are devices found in many electronic instruments, such as radios and televisions. Tin is a metal which resists rusting and corrosion. The most dense element in the carbon family is the metal lead.Lead forms poisonous compounds.
The Nitrogen family consists of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals. Arsenic is a metalloid with mostly nonmetallic properties. Antimony is a metalloid with mostly metallic properties. Bismuth is the most metallic element in the family. All members of the nitrogen family have five electrons in their outermost energy level. These elements lose electrons easily.
The Oxygen family includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. All of these have six electrons in their outermost energy level. Their properties go from nonmetallic in oxygen and sulfur to metalloid in selenium and tellurium to metallic in polonium.
Halogens are the elements in family VIIA. They are strongly nonmetallic. The halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. They are the most active nonmetals. The chemical reactivity of the halogens is due to the number of electrons in the outermost energy levels of their atoms. Fluorine is the most active halogen. They have low melting points and boiling points. In the gas phase they exist as diatomic elements. Halongens combine readily with metals to form a class of compounds known as salts.
Noble Gasses are colorless gasses that are extremely unreactive. Because do not readily combine with other elements to form compounds, the noble gasses are called inert. The family of noble gasses includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. All the noble gasses are found in small amounts in the earth's atomsphere. One important property of the noble gasses is their inactivity. They are inactive because their outermost energy level is full.
HW # 3 Questions Physical Science
- What is the conservation of energy theory?
- How do kinetic and potential energy differ?
- How can frequency and wavelength be descibed?
- What is the work-energy theorem?
- How does a closed system differ from an open one?
- How can energy be transfered?
- What are some types of waves?
- What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
- How can waves be described?
- What is the definition of work?
- How are newtons measured?
- Describe nuclear, geothermal, thermal, gravitational and elastic energies
- What are Contact Forces, Action-at-a-Distance Forces, Frictional Force, Gravitational Force, Tensional Force, Electrical Force, Normal Force, Magnetic Force, Air Resistance Force, Applied Force, and Spring Forces?
Link
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/Class/BBoard.html
http://www.mrfizzix.com/
http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/FAQ.html
Homework 2
What is matter?
What are elements?
What is the structure of an atom?
What are the most common elements in the earth’s crust?
How is the periodic table organized?
What are metals?
Where are they located on the periodic table?
What are compounds?
What is a molecule?
What are mixtures?
What are some physical properties?
How do solids, liquids, and gases differ?
What is it called when matter changes from a gas to a liquid to a solid?
How do melting, freezing, sublimation, and condensation differ?
How can volume be described?
What is it called when atoms bond?
How does the state of matter and adding energy affect the movement of particles?
How does the state of matter and adding energy affect the distance of particles?
Describe how matter changes phases?
What are diffusion, active transport and osmosis?
How does the periodic table tell you about an element?
What is the nature of an atom?
How has atomic theory changed?Name three scientists and their contribution
What are subatomic particles?
What is the charge of electrons, protons, and neutrons?
What is an atomic mass unit?
What is an isotope?
How are isotopes represented?
What are some atomic models?
What is the wave mechanical or electron cloud model?
How do energy levels relate to electrons?
What happens when an electron gains energy?
How can elements be identified?
What are valence electrons?
Checklist of things to know
3.1a The modern model of the atom has evolved over a long period of time through thework of many scientists.
3.1b Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive charge, surrounded bynegatively charged electrons.
3.1c Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus include protons and neutrons.INDICATOR 3.1Chemistry 17
3.1d The proton is positively charged, and the neutron has no charge. The electron isnegatively charged.
3.1e Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in an atom
Physical Science HW # 3
Physics
The law of conservation of energy provides one of the basic keys to understanding the universe. The fundamental
tenet of this law is that the total mass-energy of the universe is constant; however, energy can be transferred in
many ways. Historically, scientists have treated the law of conservation of matter and energy separately. All energy
can be classified as either kinetic or potential. When work is done on or by a system, the energy of the system
changes. This relationship is known as the work-energy theorem.
Energy may be transferred by matter or by waves. Waves transfer energy without transferring mass. Most of the
information scientists gather about the universe is derived by detecting and analyzing waves. This process has been
enhanced through the use of digital analysis. Types of waves include mechanical and electromagnetic. All waves
have the same characteristics and exhibit certain behaviors, subject to the constraints of conservation of energy.
Note: the use of e.g. denotes examples which may be used for in-depth study. The terms for example and such as denote
material which is testable. Items in parantheses denote further definition of the word(s) preceding the item and are testable.
Students can observe and describe transmission of various forms of energy.
Major Understandings:
4.1a All energy transfers are governed by the law of conservation of energy.*
4.1b Energy may be converted among mechanical, electromagnetic, nuclear, and thermal
forms.
4.1c Potential energy is the energy an object possesses by virtue of its position or
condition. Types of potential energy include gravitational* and elastic*.
4.1d Kinetic energy* is the energy an object possesses by virtue of its motion.
4.1e In an ideal mechanical system, the sum of the macroscopic kinetic and potential
energies (mechanical energy) is constant.*
4.1f In a nonideal mechanical system, as mechanical energy decreases there is a
corresponding increase in other energies such as internal energy.*
4.1g When work* is done on or by a system, there is a change in the total energy* of the
system.
4.1h Work done against friction results in an increase in the internal energy of the system.
4.1i Power* is the time-rate at which work is done or energy is expended.
(Note: Items with asterisks* require quantitative treatment per the Reference Table for Physics. Asterisks following individual words refer to the
preceding word or phrase only; asterisks appearing after the final period of a sentence refer to all concepts or ideas presented in the sentence.)
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 4.1
Physics 15
4.1j Energy may be stored in electric* or magnetic fields. This energy may be transferred
through conductors or space and may be converted to other forms of energy.
4.1k Moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. The relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field may produce a potential difference in the conductor.
4.1l All materials display a range of conductivity. At constant temperature, common
metallic conductors obey Ohm’s Law*.
4.1m The factors affecting resistance in a conductor are length, cross-sectional area,
temperature, and resistivity.*
4.1n A circuit is a closed path in which a current* can exist. (Note: Use conventional
current.)
4.1o Circuit components may be connected in series* or in parallel*. Schematic diagrams
are used to represent circuits and circuit elements.
4.1p Electrical power* and energy* can be determined for electric circuits.
Students can explain variations in wavelength and frequency in terms of the source of the
vibrations that produce them, e.g., molecules, electrons, and nuclear particles.
Major Understandings:
4.3a An oscillating system produces waves. The nature of the system determines the
type of wave produced.
4.3b Waves carry energy and information without transferring mass. This energy may
be carried by pulses or periodic waves.
4.3c The model of a wave incorporates the characteristics of amplitude, wavelength,*
frequency*, period*, wave speed*, and phase.
4.3d Mechanical waves require a material medium through which to travel.
4.3e Waves are categorized by the direction in which particles in a medium vibrate
about an equilibrium position relative to the direction of propagation of the wave, such
as transverse and longitudinal waves.
4.3f Resonance occurs when energy is transferred to a system at its natural frequency.
4.3g Electromagnetic radiation exhibits wave characteristics. Electromagnetic waves
can propagate through a vacuum.
4.3h When a wave strikes a boundary between two media, reflection*, transmission,
and absorption occur. A transmitted wave may be refracted.
4.3i When a wave moves from one medium into another, the wave may refract due to a
change in speed. The angle of refraction (measured with respect to the normal) depends
on the angle of incidence and the properties of the media (indices of refraction).*
4.3j The absolute index of refraction is inversely proportional to the speed of a wave.*
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 4.1
continued
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 4.3
4.3k All frequencies of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same speed in a vacuum.*
4.3l Diffraction occurs when waves pass by obstacles or through openings. The wavelength
of the incident wave and the size of the obstacle or opening affect how the wave
spreads out.
4.3m When waves of a similar nature meet, the resulting interference may be explained
using the principle of superposition. Standing waves are a special case of interference.
4.3n When a wave source and an observer are in relative motion, the observed frequency
of the waves traveling between them is shifted (Doppler effect).
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 4.3
Chemistry HW # 4
16 Chemistry
Explain the properties of materials in terms of the arrangement and properties of the atoms that
compose them.
Major Understandings:
3.1a The modern model of the atom has evolved over a long period of time through the
work of many scientists.
3.1b Each atom has a nucleus, with an overall positive charge, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons.
3.1c Subatomic particles contained in the nucleus include protons and neutrons.
INDICATOR 3.1
Chemistry 17
3.1d The proton is positively charged, and the neutron has no charge. The electron is
negatively charged.
3.1e Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges. The number of protons
equals the number of electrons in an atom.
3.1f The mass of each proton and each neutron is approximately equal to one atomic
mass unit. An electron is much less massive than a proton or a neutron.
3.1g The number of protons in an atom (atomic number) identifies the element. The sum
of the protons and neutrons in an atom (mass number) identifies an isotope. Common
notations that represent isotopes include: 14C, 14C, carbon-14, C-14.
6
3.1h In the wave-mechanical model (electron cloud model) the electrons are in orbitals,
which are defined as the regions of the most probable electron location (ground state).
3.1i Each electron in an atom has its own distinct amount of energy.
3.1j When an electron in an atom gains a specific amount of energy, the electron is at a
higher energy state (excited state).
3.1k When an electron returns from a higher energy state to a lower energy state, a
specific amount of energy is emitted. This emitted energy can be used to identify an
element.
3.1l The outermost electrons in an atom are called the valence electrons. In general, the
number of valence electrons affects the chemical properties of an element.
3.1m Atoms of an element that contain the same number of protons but a different number
of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.
3.1n The average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of
its naturally occurring isotopes.
3.1o Stability of an isotope is based on the ratio of neutrons and protons in its nucleus.
Although most nuclei are stable, some are unstable and spontaneously decay, emitting
radiation.
3.1p Spontaneous decay can involve the release of alpha particles, beta particles,
positrons, and/or gamma radiation from the nucleus of an unstable isotope. These
emissions differ in mass, charge, ionizing power, and penetrating power.
3.1q Matter is classified as a pure substance or as a mixture of substances.
3.1r A pure substance (element or compound) has a constant composition and constant
properties throughout a given sample, and from sample to sample.
3.1s Mixtures are composed of two or more different substances that can be separated
by physical means. When different substances are mixed together, a homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixture is formed.
3.1t The proportions of components in a mixture can be varied. Each component in a
mixture retains its original properties.
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 3.1
continued
18 Chemistry
3.1u Elements are substances that are composed of atoms that have the same atomic
number. Elements cannot be broken down by chemical change.
3.1v Elements can be classified by their properties and located on the Periodic Table as
metals, nonmetals, metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te), and noble gases.
3.1w Elements can be differentiated by physical properties. Physical properties of substances,
such as density, conductivity, malleability, solubility, and hardness, differ
among elements.
3.1x Elements can also be differentiated by chemical properties. Chemical properties
describe how an element behaves during a chemical reaction.
3.1y The placement or location of an element on the Periodic Table gives an indication
of the physical and chemical properties of that element. The elements on the Periodic
Table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
3.1z For Groups 1, 2, and 13-18 on the Periodic Table, elements within the same group
have the same number of valence electrons (helium is an exception) and therefore similar
chemical properties.
3.1aaThe succession of elements within the same group demonstrates characteristic
trends: differences in atomic radius, ionic radius, electronegativity, first ionization
energy, metallic/nonmetallic properties.
3.1bb The succession of elements across the same period demonstrates characteristic
trends: differences in atomic radius, ionic radius, electronegativity, first ionization
energy, metallic/nonmetallic properties.
3.1ccA compound is a substance composed of two or more different elements that are
chemically combined in a fixed proportion. A chemical compound can be broken down
by chemical means. A chemical compound can be represented by a specific chemical
formula and assigned a name based on the IUPAC system.
3.1dd Compounds can be differentiated by their physical and chemical properties.
3.1eeTypes of chemical formulas include empirical, molecular, and structural.
3.1ff Organic compounds contain carbon atoms, which bond to one another in chains,
rings, and networks to form a variety of structures. Organic compounds can be named
using the IUPAC system.
3.1gg Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. Saturated
hydrocarbons contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
contain at least one multiple carbon-carbon bond.
3.1hh Organic acids, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, halides, amines,
amides, and amino acids are categories of organic compounds that differ in their structures.
Functional groups impart distinctive physical and chemical properties to organic
compounds.
3.1ii Isomers of organic compounds have the same molecular formula, but different
structures and properties.
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 3.1
continued
3.1jj The structure and arrangement of particles and their interactions determine the
physical state of a substance at a given temperature and pressure.
3.1kkThe three phases of matter (solids, liquids, and gases) have different properties.
3.1ll Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. A system with
greater disorder has greater entropy.
3.1mm Systems in nature tend to undergo changes toward lower energy and higher
entropy.
3.1nnDifferences in properties such as density, particle size, molecular polarity, boiling
and freezing points, and solubility permit physical separation of the components of the
mixture.
3.1ooA solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent. The solubility
of a solute in a given amount of solvent is dependent on the temperature, the
pressure, and the chemical natures of the solute and solvent.
3.1ppThe concentration of a solution may be expressed in molarity (M), percent by volume,
percent by mass, or parts per million (ppm).
3.1qqThe addition of a nonvolatile solute to a solvent causes the boiling point of the solvent
to increase and the freezing point of the solvent to decrease. The greater the concentration
of solute particles, the greater the effect.
3.1rr An electrolyte is a substance which, when dissolved in water, forms a solution
capable of conducting an electric current. The ability of a solution to conduct an electric
current depends on the concentration of ions.
3.1ss The acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution can be measured by its pH value.
The relative level of acidity or alkalinity of these solutions can be shown by using
indicators.
3.1tt On the pH scale, each decrease of one unit of pH represents a tenfold increase in
hydronium ion concentration.
3.1uuBehavior of many acids and bases can be explained by the Arrhenius theory.
Arrhenius acids and bases are electrolytes.
3.1vvArrhenius acids yield H+(aq), hydrogen ion as the only positive ion in an aqueous
solution. The hydrogen ion may also be written as H3O+(aq), hydronium ion.
3.1ww Arrhenius bases yield OH-(aq), hydroxide ion as the only negative ion in an
aqueous solution.
3.1xx In the process of neutralization, an Arrhenius acid and an Arrhenius base react to
form a salt and water.
3.1yy There are alternate acid-base theories. One theory states that an acid is an H+
donor and a base is an H+ acceptor.
3.1zz Titration is a laboratory process in which a volume of a solution of known
concentration is used to determine the concentration of another solution.
PERFORMANCE
INDICATOR 3.1
continued
